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“We conducted a systematic review of studies examining relationships between measures of beverage alcohol tax or price levels and alcohol sales or self-reported drinking. A total of 112 studies of alcohol tax or price effects were found, containing1003 estimates of the tax/price-consumption relationship.\n\nStudies included analyses of alternative outcome measures, varying subgroups of the population, several statistical models, and using different units of analysis.

Multiple estimates were coded from each study, along with numerous study characteristics. Using reported estimates, standard errors, t-ratios, sample sizes and other statistics, we calculated the partial HKI-272 correlation for the relationship between alcohol price or tax and sales or drinking measures for each major model or subgroup reported within each study. Random-effects models were used to Selleckchem ASP2215 combine studies for inverse variance weighted overall estimates of the magnitude and significance of the relationship between alcohol tax/price and drinking.\n\nSimple means of reported elasticities are -0.46 for beer, -0.69 for wine and -0.80 for spirits. Meta-analytical results document the highly significant relationships (P < 0.001) between alcohol tax or price measures and indices of sales or consumption of alcohol (aggregate-level r = -0.17 for

beer, -0.30 for wine, -0.29 for spirits and -0.44 for total alcohol). Price/tax also affects heavy drinking significantly (mean reported elasticity = -0.28, individual-level r = -0.01, P < 0.01), but the magnitude of effect is smaller than effects on overall drinking.\n\nA large literature establishes that beverage alcohol prices and taxes are related inversely to drinking. Effects are large compared to other prevention policies and programs. Public policies that raise prices of alcohol are an effective means to Silmitasertib reduce drinking.”
“This article presents a current view of training in neurorhinology and focuses on the level of evidence for the clinical question of “how many cases are needed to achieve proficiency in endoscopic endonasal skull base surgery?” The authors discuss what defines surgical proficiency, what

makes up the learning curve and how it shifts with increasing experience, comparisons of learning curves for different skull base surgeries, and conclude with a discussion and recommendations for achieving high-level proficiency.”
“Effect of Body Condition Score (BCS), ewe live weight and age at mating were studied on reproductive performance of Afshari ewes. Total 162 Afshari ewes divided in four BCS Group (2, 2.5, 3 and more than 3.5). Reproductive parameters, such as number of Lambs born per joined ewes, kilograms (kg) lambs born per joined ewes, gestation period and birth weight of lambs were determined. Obtained results from present study showed that, the BCS had a significant effect on lambs born per joined ewes (p<0.