23,24 The resolution of these molecular

imaging techniques offers the first glimpse into the synaptic microclusters and can begin addressing the molecular mechanisms operating inside. In this review I will focus on the initial contribution of these techniques to three questions pertaining to antigen receptor signalling: (i) how are receptors organized inside microclusters, (ii) how do cytoplasmic domains of antigen receptors recruit intracellular kinases, and (iii) how does the synaptic environment click here regulate the discrimination of affinity for antigen? Finally, I provide an outlook on what the molecular imaging technology may bring us in the near future. Tracking single molecules in time (Fig. 2) can measure the speed of their diffusion, but also reveals signs of biologically interesting behaviour, such as binding to or bouncing off other proteins or cellular structures.23 This is very useful to reveal discrete molecular events that are otherwise hidden in the behaviour of a population of molecules. Importantly, because the fluorescence emitted by individual labels can be localized with a precision of about 10–40 nm,25 single

molecule data contain high-resolution information. It should be noted that under physiological concentrations, most proteins are too abundant to all be visualized simultaneously. Therefore, it is necessary to either label only a fraction of the molecules Phospholipase D1 or to bleach some of the MLN0128 mw labels before data acquisition. Pioneering studies in T cells showed that antigen-induced microclustering has a pronounced effect on the diffusion of membrane proteins. Most of the time molecules bounce off the

microclusters and only rarely diffuse through them, suggesting that tight packing of proteins inside these structures does not allow normal diffusion.26,27 While CD45 could never enter the microclusters, proteins involved in TCR signalling, such as the Src-kinase Lck and downstream transmembrane adaptor LAT, could join the microclusters by immobilizing in their periphery. The immobilization was dependent on specific protein–protein interactions. For example, mutations of critical tyrosines in LAT led to loss of LAT’s immobilization upon entry into the microclusters. Hence, the microclusters contain at least some areas with dense protein domains that restrict diffusion and allow exchange of molecules only through binding and unbinding. Single molecule tracking of the BCR showed that in resting B cells the BCR was mostly mobile, although its diffusion was hindered by cortical actin,28 which corralled and sometimes trapped the BCR. In contrast, single molecule tracking of the BCR in antigen-induced synapses showed that the BCR immobilized specifically in microclusters, reminiscent of the immobilization of signalling molecules in T-cell microclusters.