In contrast, the finding that the Fc fragments of antibodies were sufficient to reproduce

the anti-inflammatory effects of IVIg suggested that this treatment operates primarily by inducing immune-modulating mechanisms, which is discussed below. A breakthrough in understanding how IVIg provides protection from autoimmune diseases was JNK inhibitor the discovery that the type of glycan attached to the Fc domain decisively determines its anti-inflammatory effect when used in a prophylactic setting in a model of antibody-induced arthritis [12]. All IgG molecules possess a conserved N-linked glycosylation site in their Fc domain that can accommodate one of 32 distinct glycans [13, 14]. These glycans engage in numerous noncovalent interactions with the IgG protein itself, which regulates the quaternary structure of the Fc domain and thereby shapes the interaction between IgG and Fc receptors [15, 16]. The glycosylation pattern of IgG antibodies is altered in some autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, with changes correlating with disease activity [17]. This suggests an association, and possibly a causative connection between antibody glycosylation and inflammation. It is now possible to modify the glycosylation of antibodies using various enzymatic reactions or enrichment methods in vitro. Noteworthy, upon complete

removal of its glycosylation, IVIg was shown to lose its ability to inhibit the inflammation caused in mice by the injection of arthritogenic antibodies [12]. In about check details 1–3% of the IgG in IVIg, the glycans attached to the Fc domain end in sialic acid moieties. The specific Lonafarnib removal of these terminal sialic acid residues by neuraminidase treatment suffices to abolish the protective effect of IVIg [12]. In contrast, enrichment of IVIg in sialic acid-containing IgG increases

their anti-inflammatory activities [12]. It is therefore believed that a prominent protective component in IVIg preparations consists of the Fc portions of IgG dressed with glycans terminating in sialic acid [12]. The fact that such sialylated IgG represent only a minor fraction of IgG in IVIg might explain the need to use such high doses of this preparation to achieve anti-inflammatory effects [18]. Indeed, IVIg is typically administered at around 2 g/kg of body weight for the treatment of autoimmune or inflammatory diseases, while patients with immunodeficiencies usually receive only 0.5 g/kg. The identification of the molecular patterns responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect of IVIg has permitted the production of a recombinant IgG1 Fc protein that is sialylated in vitro and recapitulates the anti-inflammatory activity of IVIg against antibody-mediated arthritis in vivo in mice [18]. Production of such an engineered protein could offer an attractive alternative to IVIg, whose use is constrained by cost and availability. The identification of the receptor for IVIg and the cell type(s) implicated in its anti-inflammatory effects are pressing issues to resolve.