1993; Kaltenbach 2007; Moreira and Martins 2005). Phytophthora species have also been identified as pathogens causing dieback in oak-trees in central Europe (Jung et al. 2000). The chestnut bark fungus Wnt inhibitor Endothia parasitica has led to a sharp decline of Castanea groves, especially in Italy and southern France, including former and present pastoral woodlands. Removal of olive groves and streuobst meadows Groves with old olive-trees have been a

characteristic feature of the Mediterranean cultural landscape, often used in multiple ways including wood-pasture. The pasturelands underneath the ancient olive-trees can be very rich in species, especially orchids and other bulbous plants. In the last 2 decades, major parts of old stands were cut and substituted by olive-plantations of high-yield varieties. Plantations have also been established in former fields and wood-pastures, especially in southern mainland and insular Greece, Italy and Spain. These plantations are generally ploughed, irrigated and pesticides are applied. selleck Streuobst meadows with standard apple and pear trees have been and are still a common sight in Germany and elsewhere in temperate Europe on the outskirts of villages. In the course of reallocation

of farming lands and rural development, there has been a substantial loss of trees and conversion to silage grasslands, fields and development areas. If still extant, the grassland underneath is commonly fertilized and no find more longer part of low-input

grazing or hay-making systems. Wood-pasture in the EU Habitats Directive Pros and cons Due to its multifunctionality and broad range of ecosystem services, wood-pasture systems have received increasing attention by scientists and policy-makers concerned with agriculture and forestry, but also in the fields of rural development, tourism and nature conservation (Mattison and Norris 2005; Rigueiro-Rodríguez et al. 2009; Terzi and Marvulli 2006). The Habitats Directive (Council of the European Communities 1992) is a legislative instrument of the European Community in the field of nature conservation. cAMP The aims of the Directive are to maintain and restore favourable conservation status of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora of Community interest. A “coherent ecological network of special areas of conservation”—Natura 2000—has been established “hosting the natural habitat types listed in Annex I and of the species listed in Annex II…” (art. 3). Among the 231 European natural habitat types listed in Annex I (European Commission 2007), very few are related to wood-pasture.