The limited cross-fostering design did not result in any effect on group differences

in maternal behavior. Hence, the frequency of pup LG across all groups of high-LG mothers was significantly higher than that for any of the low-LG dams, regardless of litter composition. The biological offspring of low-LG dams reared by high-LG mothers were significantly less fearful under conditions of novelty than were the offspring reared by low-LG mothers, including the biological offspring of high-LG mothers.40 Subsequent studies reveal similar findings for hippocampal GR selleck inhibitor expression and for the differences in both the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical α1 and γ2-GABAA receptor subunit expression in the amygdala.41 These findings suggest that individual differences

in patterns of gene expression and behavior can be directly linked to maternal care over the first week of life. Molecular basis for the effect of maternal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical care on HPA responses to stress Molecular biologists have characterized a class of intracellular proteins, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical termed transcription factors, which are rapidly synthesized in response to extracellular signals and subsequent changes in intracellular second-messenger systems, and which then serve to alter gene transcription. Transcription factors thus provide the molecular interface between gene and environmentally induced changes in cellular activity. The challenge for understanding the pathways by Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical which maternal care alters gene expression is to describe the relevant extracellular and intracellular signals, including the target transcription factors. Both postnatal handling, which increases

maternal LG (see above), and rearing by a high-LG mothers enhance serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) turnover in the hippocampus in day-6 rat pups.73,74 Interestingly, postnatal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical handling results in specific increases in 5-HT in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, where GR expression is increased.74 5-HT levels in the hypothalamus, septum, and amygdala are unaffected; GR levels in these regions are not altered by handling. Thus, the sensory input associated with maternal Parvulin LG selectively alters 5-HT activity in specific brain regions. The obvious question is whether the increase in 5-HT might directly influence GR gene expression. This issue is remarkably difficult to address with in vivo studies, in which pharmacological manipulations targeting a specific neurotransmitter system inevitably alter other systems, as well as systems in other brain regions. This issue begs an in vitro approach in which the relevant system, the hippocampal neurons, can be examined in a cell culture system. In vitro, the treatment of primary hippocampal cell cultures with 5-HT increases GR expression and this effect is mediated by 5-HT7 receptor activation.